Evidence · Learning to read
How should children be taught to read?
The strongest evidence supports teaching the letter and sound code directly and early, along with broad knowledge so children understand what they read.
The short answer
A federal research panel found in 2000 that systematic phonics works better than teaching with little or no phonics. Some popular programs instead taught children to identify words from pictures, context and sentence structure, a method called three-cueing. Several states now ban or restrict that method in their schools. Mississippi overhauled early reading in 2013, and its 4th grade reading scores climbed from near the bottom to above the national average. Phonics is necessary but not sufficient. Children also need vocabulary and knowledge of the world to understand what they decode.
What did the National Reading Panel find?
In April 2000, the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development published the Report of the National Reading Panel. For phonics, the panel analyzed 38 studies that produced 66 treatment and control comparisons. It found that systematic phonics instruction is significantly more effective than instruction with little or no phonics.
The effects were significant and substantial in kindergarten and first grade. First graders who received systematic phonics improved in decoding, spelling and reading comprehension. Older students improved in decoding and spelling, but their comprehension did not improve significantly. The strongest effects came in the earliest grades.
The panel also found that systematic phonics helped children from low-income homes and children with reading disabilities read words better. It described phonics as a necessary component of a total reading program, but only one component.
Later federal guidance reached a similar view. A 2016 What Works Clearinghouse practice guide rates the evidence as strong for linking speech sounds to letters and for teaching children to decode words.
What is three-cueing, and which states restrict it?
Three-cueing teaches a child to work out an unfamiliar word from several clues. Ohio law defines it as any model that teaches reading based on meaning, structure and syntax, and visual cues. Indiana law describes a model that uses context, pictures or syntax as the primary basis for word recognition. Wisconsin's statute adds that the model is also known as meaning, structure and visual cues, or MSV.
In a three-cueing classroom, sounding out the letters becomes one clue among several. A child may look at the picture or think about what fits the sentence instead. Ohio's law defines the science of reading as a body of evidence that does not rely on three-cueing.
We confirmed the following state actions in each state's own statutes or education department guidance:
- Ohio. Districts may not use core curriculum, materials or intervention programs that use three-cueing in pre-kindergarten through grade 5. The rule took effect through House Bill 33 in October 2023. Schools can seek a waiver for an individual student.
- Indiana. Schools may not adopt reading curriculum or supplemental materials based on three-cueing.
- Wisconsin. 2023 Wisconsin Act 20 keeps three-cueing out of teacher preparation and state literacy coaching. Since the 2024-25 school year, schools may not use it in the core reading curriculum for kindergarten through grade 3.
- Louisiana. Act 517 of 2022 bars textbooks that use the three-cueing model in reading instruction.
- Texas. The State Board of Education may approve kindergarten through grade 3 foundational reading materials only if they do not include three-cueing.
- Kentucky. A 2026 law requires districts to stop using any curriculum, intervention or program that uses three-cueing by the 2029-2030 school year. It also bars professional development built on the method.
- Alabama. The state education department told schools in July 2026 that SB168 prohibits three-cueing in public schools and teacher preparation programs, starting in 2026-2027.
This list covers only the states we confirmed in primary sources. It is not a national count.
What happened in Mississippi after 2013?
In 2013, Mississippi passed the Literacy-Based Promotion Act. Its stated goal is for every student finishing third grade to read at or above grade level. The law requires schools to screen children in kindergarten through third grade. Children with a substantial reading deficiency must receive intensive reading instruction right away. Schools must tell families in writing when their child has such a deficiency.
Starting in 2014-2015, the law holds back third graders who still score at the lowest level in reading, unless they meet a good cause exemption. It also directs the state education department to train teachers and administrators.
Before the law, Mississippi trailed most of the country. In 2013, its 4th graders averaged 209 on the NAEP reading test, against a national public school average of 221. Mississippi scored lower than 47 states and jurisdictions that year. Only 21 percent of its 4th graders reached NAEP Proficient.
By 2019, Mississippi's average had risen to 219, the same as the national average. In 2024, it scored 219 again, while the national average fell to 214. Only two states or jurisdictions scored higher than Mississippi in 2024. The share of its 4th graders at or above Proficient reached 32 percent.
These numbers show change over time. They do not prove which part of the law caused it. The law combined screening, early help, family notice, teacher training and a promotion rule, and other changes happened in the same years. The 4th grade gains also do not show up in Mississippi's 8th grade scores. In 2024, Mississippi 8th graders averaged 253 in reading, below the national average of 257. That score was not significantly different from Mississippi's 1998 score.
Where do American readers stand now?
The 2024 Nation's Report Card showed reading scores falling again. Average scores dropped 2 points in both 4th and 8th grade compared with 2022. That drop came on top of a 3 point decline in both grades between 2019 and 2022.
About 40 percent of 4th graders scored below NAEP Basic, the largest share since 2002. About a third of 8th graders scored below Basic, the largest percentage ever. Our page on learning loss after school closures covers the earlier drop.
One state stood out. Louisiana was the only state whose 4th grade reading score passed its 2019 level. Its 4th graders averaged 216, compared with 214 for the nation. Louisiana has barred three-cueing textbooks since 2022. A single state result cannot show what caused it.
Is phonics enough?
No. Phonics lets a child turn print into spoken words. Understanding those words takes vocabulary and knowledge. The National Reading Panel said phonics skills must be integrated with phonemic awareness, fluency and comprehension.
A 2020 Fordham Institute study used federal data that followed children from kindergarten through 5th grade. It found that more class time on social studies was associated with better reading ability, while more time on English language arts was not. Children from lower-income homes and from non-English-speaking homes appeared to benefit most. The study shows an association, not proof of cause.
Knowledge-rich schooling gives children the background that reading comprehension depends on. Our page on classical, knowledge-rich education reviews that evidence. Our page on whether children still read for fun looks at the books children choose on their own.
What can families ask a school about reading?
Anyone who cares about a child can ask these questions of a teacher, principal or school board:
- Which reading program do you use in kindergarten through third grade? Does it teach letter and sound patterns in a planned order?
- Do teachers ever tell children to guess a word from the picture, the first letter or what makes sense?
- Does our state ban or restrict three-cueing, and does your program comply?
- How often do you screen young children for reading problems? Mississippi's law, for example, calls for screening early in the year and again later when needed.
- What extra help does a struggling reader get, and how will you tell the family?
- How much time do children spend each week on history, science, geography and the arts?
What Restore Childhood is doing
Restore Childhood is a 501(c)(3) that makes films, reporting and tools for everyone who cares about children. Its film 15 DAYS covers America's pandemic school closures. It publishes reporting on its Substack. This page is part of a series of plain evidence pages on childhood and school.
What you can do now
- Ask your school for the name of its K-3 reading program, then look it up.
- Listen to a young child read aloud. Notice whether the child sounds out new words or guesses from pictures.
- Look up your state's reading law on the legislature or education department website.
- Check your state's NAEP reading results on The Nation's Report Card.
- Read aloud with children from books about history, science and the wider world.
- Share this page with your school board or a teacher you trust.
Related
We update this page as new data comes out. If you see an error, please contact us.